The process of
thinking about thinking is called metathought.
Thinking is a mental process characterized by the use of symbols and
concepts to represent both inner and outer reality. A symbol is a word, mark, sign, drawing, or object that stands for something
else.
Forming Concepts: Putting the World
into Mental Boxes
A concept is a mental category. A basic
tool of thought, it is a way in which we organize and simplify information.
Concepts put the world of experience into mental boxes. There are three basic
kinds of concepts:
- A conjunctive concept strings together perceived attributes. A conjunctive concept joins attributes to make a perceptual whole. Concepts are formed by both positive and negative exemplars. A positive exemplar is an object or an idea that fits the concept, that can be contained within it. A negative exemplar is an object or an idea that does not fit the concept, that cannot be contained within it.
- A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in either-or terms.
- A relational concept treats perceived attributes in terms of some connection between objects or ideas such as “more than,” “less than,” “bigger than,” “more beautiful than,” and so forth. A concept such as “cheapskate” is a relational concept.
Solving Problems: What Is the Square Root of 12?
Two basic ways to
solve problems are to employ either (1) algorithms or (2) heuristic approaches.
An algorithm is a formula. If
followed carefully, it will always solve the problem. Solving a problem without a formula involves
the use of heuristic approaches. Heuristic
approaches employ principles, rules-of-thumb, and insights to solve problems. A
heuristic approach is based on the attitude “I can solve this problem even if I
can’t solve it in an elegant way.”
A particular kind of
heuristic approach is a means-end analysis. A means-end analysis is characterized by identifying a goal and then
finding a way in which the goal can be obtained.
When an orderly
approach to solving a problem is taken, psychologists have identified five
important steps. These are (1) definition of the problem, (2) preparation, (3)
incubation, (4) illumination, (5) and verification.
Obstacles to Solving Problems: Mental
Sets Can Cause Difficulties
A mental set is a subconscious
determining tendency. It is there, a
part of our cognitive processes, but sometimes its content doesn’t enter
consciousness. In principle a mental set can either help you solve a problem or
interfere with the discovery of a solution. Of principal interest is the way in
which a mental set can interfere.
Functional fixedness exists when there is a need to use a tool or
familiar object in a novel way and one can’t perceive the novel way. Let’s say
that a carpenter needs a plumb line in order to erect a perpendicular
two-by-four piece of wood. He or she can’t find the line in the tool box.
Functional fixedness
is really a special case of mental set. There is often a mental set that a tool
is designed for one and only one purpose. And this fixes the user’s attention
on that and only that particular function of the tool.
Logical Thinking: How We Reason
In order to think
effectively, it is necessary to think in a logical manner. Logical thinking is thinking that employs valid reasoning to reach
a correct conclusion. Logical thinking is the foundation of rational thought, thought that fits the
real world and allows us to function well in it. There are two basic kinds of
reasoning involved in logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive
reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is characterized by making observations and
gathering information until a general conclusion is reached. Deductive reasoning is reasoning in which a conclusion follows from
a premise. The underlying structure of deductive reasoning is if-then. Such reasoning allows for
predictions, and it is often the next step taken after inductive reasoning is
employed.
Predicate thinking
is not the only way in which thinking can be led astray. Logical errors are
common. Such errors include:
- Overgeneralization, also known as hasty generalization, takes place when we reach a conclusion that goes substantially beyond the facts that inspire it.
- An analogy consists of the observation that two basically dissimilar things have some resemblance to each other. A false analogy exists when the comparison between two things is inappropriate.
- Appeal to authority is characterized making by a reference to a respected person, believed to be well informed, when one’s own logic or reasoning is weak.
- Arguing in circles takes place when one’s premise contains the conclusion that one wants to reach.
- Attack on character picks out a negative attribute of another person and uses this attribute to discredit other aspects of the person’s behavior.
Creative Thinking: The Importance of
Originality
Creative thinking is
an important factor in writing poems, books, and songs. It is also plays an
important role in advancing human understanding in fields of study such as
physics, biology, and psychology.
The core feature of
the creative process is divergent
thinking, thinking that follows new pathways and explores alternative
possibilities. Divergent thinking often involves breaking mental sets. Convergent thinking, in contrast to divergent thinking, follows
conventional thought pathways. It is the core feature in rational thought,
thought that employs both inductive and deductive logic.
The Gestalt
psychologist Max Wertheimer asserted that productive
thinking, high-quality creative thinking, combines both divergent and
convergent thinking in a functional way. It is possible to evaluate
the quality of creative thinking by three criteria:
(1) productivity, (2) originality, and (3) flexibility.
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