Social Psychology - Interacting with Other People

In order to examine the full spectrum of human behavior it is essential to explore social behavior, behavior that involves interactions with other people. Social psychology, the subject matter of this chapter, is the systematic study of how exchanges with these others in our environment influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Interpersonal Attraction: Who Likes Whom, and Why?

Interpersonal attraction exists between two people when they make, or wish to make, more approach responses than avoidance responses to each other. 

It should be noted that attraction is not necessarily interpersonal. It is interpersonal only if the attraction is mutual.

First, physical appearance plays an important role in interpersonal attraction.  Second, personality traits are a set of factors. It is sometimes said that opposites attract. Third, interests are sets of factors. Fourth, the matching hypothesis states that interpersonal attraction is fostered when two people see themselves as relatively similar in intelligence, stature, ambition, and other personal characteristics. Fifth, the ratio of gains to losses is a factor. Sixth, according to attribution theory, we are prone to explain the behavior of other human beings by attributing motives to them.

Attitudes: Exploring Psychological Positions

An attitude is a relatively stable disposition to think, feel, or act in either a positive or negative manner in response to certain kinds of situations, people, or objects. When an attitude reflects in any way on the behavior of other individuals or groups, it is called a social attitude.

There are four components to an attitude: 

1. The evaluative component refers to the fact that an attitude is said to be either positive or negative.
2. The cognitive component refers to what an individual thinks in association with a particular attitude. 
3. The affective component refers to whatever emotions are triggered by a particular attitude.
4. The behavioral component refers to the action that an individual takes in connection with a particular attitude.

The Art of Persuasion: Toward the Changing of Attitudes

An appeal to reason is also often used. The agent of persuasion sets forth facts and makes a logical, rational appeal. An appeal to reason can be made in the form of a one-sided or a two-sided argument. A one-sided argument sets forth only the favorable aspects of a given attitude. A two-sided argument sets forth both the favorable and unfavorable aspects of a given attitude. Third, an emotional appeal is often persuasive. Such an appeal bypasses reason and logic. Fourth, the mood of the target person or audience is a factor in attitude change.

Conformity and Social Influence: Reacting to Other People

Conformity in social behavior exists when one individual makes an effort to match his or her behavior to the behavior of other members of a reference group. Conformity is at odds with the need for autonomy. Autonomy exists when one individual takes voluntary action that may or may not conform to group behavior.

From the point of view of the family, school, religious organization, military organization, and similar groups, it is necessary that individuals display prosocial behavior, behavior that fosters the long-run interests of a given group. Antisocial behavior, on the other hand, undermines the long-run interests of a group.

Certain factors play a significant role in determining behavior that encourages an individual to conform to the behavior of a given group.

1. First, the perceived ambiguity of a situation makes social influence more effective. Social influence is the impact on one person’s thinking and perception that arises from the behavior and opinions of one or more other people.
2. Second, obedience, a tendency to conform to the requests of an authority figure, plays a role in conformity.
3. Third, balance theory suggests that human beings have a need for balance, a state of equilibrium, in their relationships to both objects and other people.
4. Fourth, the diffusion hypothesis suggests that we are less likely to conform to social expectations if we perceive ourselves as carrying only an insignificant portion of an overall responsibility to act.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The Square Peg Can’t Fit in the Round Hole

Social behavior can often be explained in terms of a need to reduce cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is a mental state created when opposed ideas exist simultaneously at a conscious level. Idea A is, so to speak, like a square peg. Idea B is like a round hole. The two ideas are mutually exclusive and can’t be fit together. Nonetheless, they coexist, at least for a time. And this produces a state of mental and emotional discomfort. The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by the social psychologist Leon Festinger.

According to Festinger, there are three ways in which human beings reduce dissonance: (1) a change in behavior, (2) a change in one of the ideas, and (3) the addition of a new idea.